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in the presence of God

  • 1 shewbread (Any of the 12 loaves of bread that stood for the 12 tribes of Israel, presented and shown in the Temple of Jerusalem in the Presence of God)

    Религия: хлебы предложения

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > shewbread (Any of the 12 loaves of bread that stood for the 12 tribes of Israel, presented and shown in the Temple of Jerusalem in the Presence of God)

  • 2 ark (The sacred chest representing to the Hebrews the presence of God among them)

    Религия: ковчежец

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > ark (The sacred chest representing to the Hebrews the presence of God among them)

  • 3 seraph (One of the 6-winged angels standing in the presence of God)

    Религия: серафим

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > seraph (One of the 6-winged angels standing in the presence of God)

  • 4 Anuyoga (In Buddhism, one of the six groups of tantras which involves secret initiation into the presence of the god and his consort and meditation on voidness in order to destroy the illusory nature of things)

    Религия: ануйога

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > Anuyoga (In Buddhism, one of the six groups of tantras which involves secret initiation into the presence of the god and his consort and meditation on voidness in order to destroy the illusory nature of things)

  • 5 Nazarite (A Jew of biblical times consecrated to God by a vow to avoid drinking wine, cutting the hair, and being defiled by the presence of a corpse)

    Религия: назарей

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > Nazarite (A Jew of biblical times consecrated to God by a vow to avoid drinking wine, cutting the hair, and being defiled by the presence of a corpse)

  • 6 hetoimasia (In Christian iconography, an empty throne on which perhaps lay a folded purple robe or a book as a symbol of the invisible presence of God)

    Религия: Этимасия

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > hetoimasia (In Christian iconography, an empty throne on which perhaps lay a folded purple robe or a book as a symbol of the invisible presence of God)

  • 7 multi presence

    N
    1. बहु देशीयता
    People still believe the multi presence of God.

    English-Hindi dictionary > multi presence

  • 8 shewbread

    ['ʃəʊbred]
    1) Религия: (Any of the 12 loaves of bread that stood for the 12 tribes of Israel, presented and shown in the Temple of Jerusalem in the Presence of God) хлебы предложения

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > shewbread

  • 9 seraph

    1) Общая лексика: серафим

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > seraph

  • 10 grace

    ɡreis
    1. noun
    1) (beauty of form or movement: The dancer's movements had very little grace.) gracia
    2) (a sense of what is right: At least he had the grace to leave after his dreadful behaviour.) delicadeza, cortesía, gentileza, decoro, detalle
    3) (a short prayer of thanks for a meal.) bendición
    4) (a delay allowed as a favour: You should have paid me today but I'll give you a day's grace.) plazo, gracia
    5) (the title of a duke, duchess or archbishop: Your/His Grace.) Ilustrísima, Excelencia
    6) (mercy: by the grace of God.) gracia
    •
    - gracefully
    - gracefulness
    - gracious
    2. interjection
    (an exclamation of surprise.) ¡por Dios!, ¡válgame Dios!, ¡Dios mío!
    - graciousness
    - with a good/bad grace
    - with good/bad grace
    grace n elegancia / gracia
    who is going to say grace? ¿quién bendecirá la mesa?
    tr[greɪs]
    1 gracia, elegancia
    2 (deportment) garbo
    3 (courtesy) delicadeza, cortesía
    5 SMALLRELIGION/SMALL gracia
    6 (delay) plazo
    ■ he gave them two weeks grace to pay les dio un plazo de dos semanas para pagar, les dio dos semanas de plazo para pagar
    1 (adorn) adornar
    2 (honour) honrar
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    with good grace de buena gana
    with bad grace a regañadientes, de mala gana
    to fall from grace caer en desgracia
    to say grace SMALLRELIGION/SMALL bendecir la comida, bendecir la mesa
    Your Grace (bishop) Su Ilustrísima 2 (duke, duchess) Su Excelencia
    the Three Graces (mythology) las tres Gracias
    grace ['greɪs] vt, graced ; gracing
    1) honor: honrar
    2) adorn: adornar, embellecer
    1) : gracia f
    by the grace of God: por la gracia de Dios
    2) blessing: bendición f (de la mesa)
    3) respite: plazo m, gracia f
    a five days' grace (period): un plazo de cinco días
    4) graciousness: gentileza f, cortesía f
    5) elegance: elegancia f, gracia f
    6)
    to be in the good graces of : estar en buenas relaciones con
    7)
    with good grace : de buena gana
    n.
    • bendición s.f.
    • bendición de la mesa s.f.
    • despejo s.m.
    • donaire s.m.
    • elegancia s.f.
    • favor s.m.
    • galantería s.f.
    • gentileza s.f.
    • gracia s.f.
    • merced s.f.
    v.
    • agraciar v.
    • favorecer v.
    • honrar v.

    I greɪs
    1) u ( elegance - of movement) gracia f, garbo m; (- of expression, form) elegancia f
    2)
    a) u ( courtesy) cortesía f, gentileza f
    b) u ( good nature)

    to do something with (a) good/bad grace — hacer* algo de buen talante/a regañadientes

    in good grace — (AmE) con la conciencia tranquila

    c) c ( good quality)
    3) u ( Relig)
    a) ( mercy) gracia f

    by the grace of God... — gracias a Dios...

    to fall from grace — ( lose favor) caer* en desgracia, ( Relig) perder* la gracia divina

    b) ( prayer)

    to say grace — ( before a meal) bendecir* la mesa; ( after a meal) dar* las gracias por la comida

    4) u ( respite) gracia f

    16 days' grace, 16 days of grace — (BrE Law) 16 días de gracia

    5) c ( as title)

    Your Grace — ( to duke etc) Excelencia; ( to bishop) Ilustrísima


    II
    transitive verb (liter) adornar
    [ɡreɪs]
    1. N
    1) (=elegance) [of form, movement etc] gracia f, elegancia f ; [of style] elegancia f, amenidad f
    2) (Rel) gracia f, gracia f divina

    to fall from grace — (Rel) perder la gracia divina; (fig) caer en desgracia

    3) (=graciousness) cortesía f, gracia f
    saving 2.
    4)
    5) (=respite) demora f

    days of grace — (Brit) (Jur) días mpl de gracia

    6) (=prayer) bendición f de la mesa
    a) (=duke)

    yes, Your Grace — sí, Excelencia

    b) (Rel)

    His Grace Archbishop Roberts — su Ilustrísima, Arzobispo Roberts

    yes, your Grace — sí, Ilustrísima

    2. VT
    1) (=adorn) adornar, embellecer
    2) (=honour) [+ occasion, event] honrar
    presence
    3.
    CPD

    grace note N — (Mus) apoyadura f

    grace period N — (Jur, Econ) período m de gracia

    * * *

    I [greɪs]
    1) u ( elegance - of movement) gracia f, garbo m; (- of expression, form) elegancia f
    2)
    a) u ( courtesy) cortesía f, gentileza f
    b) u ( good nature)

    to do something with (a) good/bad grace — hacer* algo de buen talante/a regañadientes

    in good grace — (AmE) con la conciencia tranquila

    c) c ( good quality)
    3) u ( Relig)
    a) ( mercy) gracia f

    by the grace of God... — gracias a Dios...

    to fall from grace — ( lose favor) caer* en desgracia, ( Relig) perder* la gracia divina

    b) ( prayer)

    to say grace — ( before a meal) bendecir* la mesa; ( after a meal) dar* las gracias por la comida

    4) u ( respite) gracia f

    16 days' grace, 16 days of grace — (BrE Law) 16 días de gracia

    5) c ( as title)

    Your Grace — ( to duke etc) Excelencia; ( to bishop) Ilustrísima


    II
    transitive verb (liter) adornar

    English-spanish dictionary > grace

  • 11 grace

    1. noun
    1) (charm) Anmut, die (geh.); Grazie, die
    2) (attractive feature) Charme, der

    airs and graces — vornehmes Getue (ugs. abwertend); affektiertes Benehmen

    4) (decency) Anstand, der

    have the grace to do something — so anständig sein und etwas tun; (civility)

    with [a] good/bad grace — bereitwillig/widerwillig

    he accepted my criticism with good/bad grace — er trug meine Kritik mit Fassung/nahm meine Kritik mit Verärgerung hin

    5) (favour) Wohlwollen, das; Gunst, die
    6) (delay) Frist, die; (Commerc.) Zahlungsfrist, die
    7) (prayers) Tischgebet, das
    2. transitive verb
    1) (adorn) zieren (geh.); schmücken
    2) (honour) auszeichnen; ehren
    * * *
    [ɡreis] 1. noun
    1) (beauty of form or movement: The dancer's movements had very little grace.) die Anmut
    2) (a sense of what is right: At least he had the grace to leave after his dreadful behaviour.) der Anstand
    3) (a short prayer of thanks for a meal.) das Tischgebet
    4) (a delay allowed as a favour: You should have paid me today but I'll give you a day's grace.) der Aufschub
    5) (the title of a duke, duchess or archbishop: Your/His Grace.) Eure Hoheit
    6) (mercy: by the grace of God.) die Gnade
    •
    - academic.ru/31937/graceful">graceful
    - gracefully
    - gracefulness
    - gracious     2. interjection
    (an exclamation of surprise.) du liebe Güte!
    - graciously
    - graciousness
    - with a good/bad grace
    - with good/bad grace
    * * *
    [greɪs]
    I. n
    1. no pl (of movement) Grazie f
    2. no pl (of appearance) Anmut f
    to do sth with [a] good/bad \grace etw anstandslos/widerwillig tun
    to have the [good] \grace to do sth den Anstand besitzen, etw zu tun
    social \graces gesellschaftliche Umgangsformen
    4. no pl (mercy) Gnade f
    to be in a state of \grace REL im Zustand der Gnade Gottes sein
    divine \grace göttliche Gnade
    in the year of \grace 1558 ( form) im Jahre des Herrn 1558
    by the \grace of God durch die Gnade Gottes
    there, but for the \grace of God go I/we ( saying) das hätte auch mich/uns erwischen können
    5. (favour) Gnade f
    \grace and favour BRIT (house, apartment) kostenlose Unterbringung, die die Königliche Familie z.B. pensionierten Beamten gewährt
    to be in sb's good \graces bei jdm gut angeschrieben sein
    to get into sb's good \graces jds Gunst erlangen
    to fall from [sb's] \grace [bei jdm] in Ungnade fallen
    6. (prayer) Tischgebet nt
    to say \grace ein Tischgebet sprechen
    7. no pl (leeway) Aufschub m
    we're supposed to pay the bill this month, but we've been given a month's \grace wir müssten die Rechnung diesen Monat bezahlen, aber sie geben uns noch einen Monat Aufschub
    Your/His/Her G\grace Euer/Seine/Ihre Gnaden veraltet
    Your G\grace (duke, duchess) Eure Hoheit; (archbishop) Eure Exzellenz
    ▪ the G\graces die Grazien
    10. FIN
    \grace period [or period of \grace] Nachfrist f, Zahlungsfrist f
    II. vt ( form)
    to \grace sb/sth [with one's presence] jdn/etw [mit seiner Anwesenheit] beehren geh o hum
    ▪ to \grace sth etw schmücken [o geh zieren]
    * * *
    [greɪs]
    1. n
    1) no pl (= gracefulness, graciousness) Anmut f; (of movement) Anmut f, Grazie f; (of monarch etc) Würde f

    with grace —

    to do sth with (a) good/bad grace — etw anstandslos/widerwillig or unwillig tun

    he bore his defeat with good grace — er nahm seine Niederlage mit Fassung or anstandslos hin

    he took it with bad grace — er war sehr ungehalten darüber

    he had/didn't even have the (good) grace to apologize — er war so anständig/brachte es nicht einmal fertig, sich zu entschuldigen

    2) (= pleasing quality) (angenehme) Eigenschaft
    3)

    (= favour) to be in sb's good graces — bei jdm gut angeschrieben sein

    4) (= respite for payment) Zahlungsfrist f

    a day's grace — ein Tag m Aufschub

    5) (= prayer) Tischgebet nt
    6) (= mercy) Gnade f

    by the grace of God —

    by the grace of God Queen... — Königin... von Gottes Gnaden

    there but for the grace of God go I —

    7) (= title) (duke, duchess) Hoheit f; (archbishop) Exzellenz f
    8) (MYTH)
    9) (MUS) Verzierung f, Ornament nt
    2. vt
    1) (= adorn) zieren (geh)
    2) (= honour) beehren (with mit); event etc zieren (geh), sich (dat) die Ehre geben bei (+dat)
    * * *
    grace [ɡreıs]
    A s
    1. Anmut f, Grazie f, Reiz m, Charme m:
    the three Graces MYTH die drei Grazien
    2. Anstand m, Schicklichkeit f, Takt m:
    have the grace to do sth den Anstand haben oder so anständig sein, etwas zu tun
    3. Bereitwilligkeit f:
    with (a) good grace gern, bereitwillig;
    with (a) bad grace, with an ill grace (nur) ungern oder widerwillig
    4. gute Eigenschaft, schöner Zug:
    social graces pl feine Lebensart;
    do grace to → B 3
    5. MUS Verzierung f, Manier f, Ornament n
    6. Gunst f, Wohlwollen n, Gnade f:
    be in sb’s good graces in jemandes Gunst stehen, bei jemandem gut angeschrieben sein;
    be in sb’s bad graces bei jemandem in Ungnade sein, bei jemandem schlecht angeschrieben sein; → fall from
    7. (auch göttliche) Gnade, Barmherzigkeit f:
    in the year of grace im Jahr des Heils; → act A 3, way1 Bes Redew
    8. REL
    a) Stand m der Gnade
    b) Tugend f:
    grace of charity (Tugend der) Nächstenliebe f
    9. Grace (Eure, Seine, Ihre) Gnaden pl (Titel):
    a) Eure Hoheit (Herzogin),
    b) Eure Exzellenz (Erzbischof)
    10. WIRTSCH, JUR Aufschub m, (Zahlungs-, Nach)Frist f:
    days of grace Respekttage;
    give sb a week’s grace jemandem eine Nachfrist von einer Woche gewähren
    11. Tischgebet n:
    say grace das Tischgebet sprechen
    B v/t
    1. zieren, schmücken
    2. ehren, auszeichnen:
    grace a party with one’s presence eine Gesellschaft mit seiner Anwesenheit beehren
    3. jemandem Ehre machen
    * * *
    1. noun
    1) (charm) Anmut, die (geh.); Grazie, die
    2) (attractive feature) Charme, der

    airs and graces — vornehmes Getue (ugs. abwertend); affektiertes Benehmen

    4) (decency) Anstand, der

    have the grace to do something — so anständig sein und etwas tun; (civility)

    with [a] good/bad grace — bereitwillig/widerwillig

    he accepted my criticism with good/bad grace — er trug meine Kritik mit Fassung/nahm meine Kritik mit Verärgerung hin

    5) (favour) Wohlwollen, das; Gunst, die
    6) (delay) Frist, die; (Commerc.) Zahlungsfrist, die
    7) (prayers) Tischgebet, das
    2. transitive verb
    1) (adorn) zieren (geh.); schmücken
    2) (honour) auszeichnen; ehren
    * * *
    n.
    Anmut nur sing. f.
    Gnade -n f.
    Gunst nur sing. f.
    Liebreiz -e m.

    English-german dictionary > grace

  • 12 grace

    I [greɪs]
    nome (title of archbishop, duke)

    His, Your Grace — Sua, Vostra Grazia; (of duchess)

    Her, Your Grace — Sua, Vostra Grazia

    II [greɪs]
    nome proprio Grazia
    * * *
    [ɡreis] 1. noun
    1) (beauty of form or movement: The dancer's movements had very little grace.) grazia
    2) (a sense of what is right: At least he had the grace to leave after his dreadful behaviour.) cortesia
    3) (a short prayer of thanks for a meal.) benedicite, preghiera di ringraziamento
    4) (a delay allowed as a favour: You should have paid me today but I'll give you a day's grace.) dilazione
    5) (the title of a duke, duchess or archbishop: Your/His Grace.) Grazia
    6) (mercy: by the grace of God.) grazia
    •
    - gracefully
    - gracefulness
    - gracious     2. interjection
    (an exclamation of surprise.) Dio mio!
    - graciousness
    - with a good/bad grace
    - with good/bad grace
    * * *
    [ɡreɪs]
    1. n
    Rel, (elegance: of form, movement etc) grazia, (graciousness) garbo, cortesia

    the Graces — (Myth) le (tre) Grazie

    he had the grace to apologise — ha avuto il buon gusto di scusarsi, per lo meno si è scusato

    to do sth with good/bad grace — fare qc volentieri/malvolentieri

    three days' grace — tre giorni di proroga, una dilazione f di tre giorni

    to say grace — dire una preghiera, (prima del pasto)

    His Grace — (duke, archbishop) Sua Eccellenza

    2. vt
    (adorn) adornare, (honour: occasion, event) onorare con la propria presenza
    * * *
    grace /greɪs/
    n.
    1 [u] grazia; garbo; leggiadria; buona grazia; benevolenza; cortesia; favore: She walks with such grace!, ella si muove con tale grazia!; to have the grace to do [to say] st., avere la buona grazia di fare [di dire] qc.; with (a) bad grace, di malagrazia; sgarbatamente; malvolentieri; with (a) good grace, con garbo; amabilmente; volentieri; effortless grace, grazia spontanea
    2 [u] (relig.) grazia divina: to be in a state of grace, essere in stato di grazia
    3 [uc] breve preghiera di ringraziamento; grazie: to say grace before a meal, rendere grazie al Signore prima di un pasto
    4 (mus., = grace note) fioritura; abbellimento
    5 [u] (comm.) respiro; rispetto; tolleranza; dilazione: days of grace, giorni di tolleranza ( per fare un pagamento); to give a day's [a year's] grace, concedere una dilazione d'un giorno [d'un anno]
    6 – (mitol.) the Graces, le Grazie
    7 (leg., stor.) clemenza; grazia: act of grace, atto di clemenza ( di un sovrano, ecc.); ( un tempo) amnistia ( ora amnesty)
    8 [u] – Grace, Grazia ( titolo onorifico di duchi e arcivescovi): Your Grace!, Vostra Grazia!; His Grace the Duke of York, Sua Grazia il duca di York
    ● (in GB) a grace-and-favour house, una casa concessa in vitalizio dal sovrano □ grace cup, bicchiere della staffa; (bicchiere del) brindisi alla fine d'un banchetto □ grace period, (ass., fin.) periodo di tolleranza; (leg., anche period of grace) periodo di grazia, proroga □ by the grace of God, per grazia di Dio □ to fall from grace, cadere in disgrazia; (relig.) perdere la grazia divina; cadere nel peccato; peccare □ to be in sb.'s bad [good] graces, essere malvisto da q. [essere nelle grazie di q.] □ in the year of grace 1917, nell'anno di grazia 1917.
    (to) grace /greɪs/
    v. t.
    1 abbellire; ornare; ingentilire
    2 onorare: to grace sb. with a title, onorare q. conferendogli un titolo
    3 (mus.) abbellire; ornare
    ● The banquet was graced by the presence of the mayor, il sindaco si è degnato di partecipare al banchetto.
    * * *
    I [greɪs]
    nome (title of archbishop, duke)

    His, Your Grace — Sua, Vostra Grazia; (of duchess)

    Her, Your Grace — Sua, Vostra Grazia

    II [greɪs]
    nome proprio Grazia

    English-Italian dictionary > grace

  • 13 grace

    [greɪs] 1. сущ.
    1) грация, грациозность; изящество; плавность

    She moved with the grace of a gazelle. — Она двигалась с грациозностью газели.

    Syn:
    2) готовность, расположение ( сделать что-либо)
    - with a good grace
    - with good grace
    - with a bad grace
    - with bad grace
    - have the good grace to do smth.
    - have the grace to do smth.
    Syn:
    3) ( graces)
    а) достоинства, добродетели

    His wife is sadly lacking in social graces I must add. — От себя добавлю, что его жена, к сожалению, не умеет себя вести в приличном обществе.

    As a girl she learned the graces required of a good hostess. — Ещё девочкой она усвоила, как должна себя вести хорошая хозяйка.

    4)
    а) рел. благодать (в христианстве - помощь, покровительство, исходящие от Бога и ниспосылаемые верующим посредством Святого Духа); милость Господня

    divine grace — благодать Божия, благодать Господня; милость Божия, милость Господня

    Elizabeth II, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of Her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith — Елизавета Вторая, Божьей милостью королева Соединённого королевства Великобритании и Северной Ирландии и других Её царств и территорий, глава Содружества, защитница веры ( полный титул королевы Великобритании Елизаветы Второй)

    The monks prayed daily for grace. — Монахи день и ночь молились о (ниспослании им) благодати.

    б) милосердие, прощение; милость

    By the king's grace, the traitor was permitted to leave the country. — По милости короля, предателю разрешили покинуть страну.

    Act of grace, act of grace — (всеобщая) амнистия

    Syn:
    5) отсрочка, передышка

    I got a few days' grace to finish my essay. — Мне дали ещё несколько дней, чтобы дописать эссе.

    days of grace — фин. льготные дни ( для уплаты по векселю)

    Syn:
    6) рел. молитва ( перед едой и после еды)

    to say grace — возносить, приносить молитвы

    7) студ. разрешение на соискание учёной степени
    8) ( Grace) милость, светлость (как часть обращения, полного титула герцога, герцогини, архиепископа)
    9) ( the Graces) миф. Грации
    10) муз. фиоритура; форшлаг; трель
    11) ( graces) игра в серсо
    ••
    2. гл.

    Borders of flowers graced the paths in the park. — Дорожки парка были украшены по краям цветами.

    The house was graced with arch and pillars. — Дом был украшен аркой и колоннами.

    Syn:
    2) удостаивать, награждать

    God may have graced them more than he has graced us. — Господь, должно быть, вознаградил их больше, чем он вознаградил нас.

    His Eminence graced the banquet by his presence. — Его Преосвященство удостоил банкет своим присутствием.

    The governor graced us with his presence. — Губернатор удостоил нас своим присутствием.

    Syn:
    3) муз. украшать мелизмами

    Англо-русский современный словарь > grace

  • 14 grace

    grace [greɪs]
    1 noun
    (a) (of movement, dancer, athlete) grâce f; (decency, politeness, tact) tact m;
    ∎ social graces savoir-vivre m;
    ∎ to do sth with good/bad grace faire qch de bonne/mauvaise grâce;
    ∎ at least he had the (good) grace to apologize il a au moins eu la décence de s'excuser
    (b) Religion grâce f;
    ∎ by the grace of God par la grâce de Dieu;
    ∎ in a state of grace en état de grâce;
    ∎ to fall from grace perdre la grâce; figurative tomber en disgrâce;
    ∎ there but for the grace of God (go I) ça aurait très bien pu m'arriver aussi;
    ∎ archaic or literary in the year of grace 1066 en l'an de grâce 1066
    (c) (amnesty) grâce f; (respite) grâce f, répit m;
    ∎ Law as an act of grace, the King…; en exerçant son droit de grâce, le Roi…;
    ∎ we have two days' grace nous disposons de deux jours de répit;
    ∎ Commerce days of grace jours mpl de grâce
    (d) (prayer → before meal) bénédicité m; (→ after meal) grâces fpl;
    ∎ to say grace (before meals) dire le bénédicité; (after meals) dire les grâces
    (e) archaic (pardon) grâce f, pardon m
    ∎ to be in sb's good/bad graces être bien/mal vu par qn
    (a) (honour) honorer;
    ∎ humorous she graced us with her presence elle nous a honorés de sa présence
    (b) formal or literary (adorn) orner, embellir;
    ∎ some exquisite watercolours graced the walls les murs étaient ornés de très jolies aquarelles
    ∎ (term of address) Your Grace (to Archbishop) Monseigneur, (Votre) Excellence, votre Excellence l'Archevêque; (to Duke) Monsieur le duc; (to Duchess) Madame la duchesse;
    ∎ His Grace the Duke Monsieur le duc;
    ∎ Her Grace the Duchess Madame la duchesse;
    ∎ His Grace the Archbishop Monseigneur ou Son Excellence l'Archevêque
    ∎ Mythology the three Graces les trois Grâces fpl
    ►► grace note note f d'agrément, ornement m;
    grace period délai m de grâce

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > grace

  • 15 grace

    grace [greɪs]
    1. noun
       a. grâce f
       c. (phrases) to do sth with good/bad grace faire qch de bonne/mauvaise grâce
       d. ( = respite) répit m
    • yes, your Grace oui, Monseigneur (or Monsieur le duc or Madame la duchesse)
       a. ( = adorn) orner ( with de)
       b. honorer ( with de)
    * * *
    [greɪs] 1.
    1) ( physical charm) grâce f
    2) (dignity, graciousness) grâce f

    to do something with (a) good/bad grace — faire quelque chose de bonne/mauvaise grâce

    3) ( spiritual) grâce f

    to fall from grace — Religion perdre la grâce; fig tomber en disgrâce

    to give somebody two days' grace — accorder un délai de deux jours à quelqu'un; ( to debtor) accorder un délai de grâce de deux jours à quelqu'un

    5) ( prayer) ( before meal) bénédicité m; ( after meal) grâces fpl
    6) ( quality)
    7) ( mannerism)
    2.
    1) ( decorate) orner, embellir
    2) ( honour) honorer

    to grace somebody with one's presence — aussi iron honorer quelqu'un de sa présence also iron

    ••

    to put on airs and graces — péj prendre des airs

    English-French dictionary > grace

  • 16 grace

    A n
    1 ( physical charm) (of movement, body, person, architecture) grâce f ; to do sth with grace faire qch avec grâce ; to have grace/no grace avoir de la/ne pas avoir de grâce ;
    2 (dignity, graciousness) grâce f ; to do sth with (a) good/bad grace faire qch de bonne/mauvaise grâce ; to accept sth with (good) grace accepter qch avec bonne grâce ; to have the grace to do avoir la bonne grâce de faire ;
    3 ( spiritual) grâce f ; in a state of grace en état de grâce ; to fall from grace Relig perdre la grâce ; fig tomber en disgrâce ; by the grace of God par la grâce de Dieu ;
    4 ( time allowance) to give sb two days' grace accorder un délai de deux jours à qn ; ( to debtor) accorder un délai de grâce de deux jours à qn ; you have one week's grace to do je vous accorde un délai d'une semaine pour faire ; a period of grace un délai ;
    5 ( prayer) ( before meal) bénédicité m ; ( after meal) grâces fpl ; to say grace dire le bénédicité or les grâces ;
    6 ( quality) sb's saving grace ce qui sauve qn ; the film's saving grace is ce qui sauve le film c'est ;
    7 ( mannerism) to have all the social graces avoir beaucoup de savoir-vivre.
    B vtr
    1 ( decorate) [statue, flowers, picture] orner, embellir ; to be graced with être orné de [façade, square] ;
    2 ( honour) honorer ; to grace sb with one's presence aussi iron honorer qn de sa présence also iron ;
    3 ( bless) to be graced with être doué de [beauty, intelligence].
    there but for the grace of God go I ça aurait aussi bien pu m'arriver ; to be in sb's good graces être dans les bonnes grâces de qn ; to put on airs and graces péj prendre des airs.

    Big English-French dictionary > grace

  • 17 witness

    1. noun
    1) Zeuge, der/Zeugin, die (of, to Gen.)
    2) see academic.ru/26073/eyewitness">eyewitness
    3) no pl. (evidence) Zeugnis, das (geh.)

    bear witness to or of something — [Person:] etwas bezeugen; (fig.) von etwas zeugen

    2. transitive verb
    1) (see)

    witness something — Zeuge/Zeugin einer Sache (Gen.) sein

    2) (attest genuineness of) bestätigen [Unterschrift, Echtheit eines Dokuments]
    * * *
    ['witnəs] 1. noun
    1) (a person who has seen or was present at an event etc and so has direct knowledge of it: Someone must have seen the accident but the police can find no witnesses.) der Zeuge/die Zeugin
    2) (a person who gives evidence, especially in a law court.) der Zeuge/die Zeugin
    3) (a person who adds his signature to a document to show that he considers another signature on the document to be genuine: You cannot sign your will without witnesses.) der Zeuge/die Zeugin
    2. verb
    1) (to see and be present at: This lady witnessed an accident at three o'clock this afternoon.) Augenzeuge sein
    2) (to sign one's name to show that one knows that (something) is genuine: He witnessed my signature on the new agreement.) beglaubigen
    •
    - witness-box / witness-stand
    - bear witness
    * * *
    wit·ness
    [ˈwɪtnəs]
    I. n
    <pl -es>
    1. (observer or attester to sth) Zeuge, Zeugin m, f (to + gen)
    as God is my \witness,... Gott ist mein Zeuge,...
    \witness [to a marriage] Trauzeuge, -zeugin m, f
    in the presence of two \witnesses in Gegenwart zweier Zeugen/Zeuginnen
    according to \witnesses Zeugenaussagen zufolge
    ▪ before \witnesses vor Zeugen/Zeuginnen
    2. LAW (sb giving testimony) Zeuge, Zeugin m, f
    your \witness! Ihr Zeuge/Ihre Zeugin!
    adverse \witness Gegenzeuge, -zeugin m, f
    character \witness Leumundszeuge, -zeugin m, f
    \witness for the defence/prosecution [or defence/prosecution \witness] Zeuge, Zeugin m, f der Verteidigung/Anklage, Entlastungs-/Belastungszeuge, -zeugin m, f
    expert [or professional] [or skilled] \witness Gutachter(in) m(f), Sachverständige(r) f(m)
    key \witness for the defence Hauptentlastungszeuge, -zeugin m, f
    in \witness whereof ( form) zum Zeugnis dessen geh
    to appear as a \witness als Zeuge/Zeugin auftreten
    to call a \witness einen Zeugen/eine Zeugin aufrufen
    to hear/swear in a \witness einen Zeugen/eine Zeugin vernehmen/vereidigen
    3. no pl ( form: proof) Zeugnis nt geh
    to bear \witness to sth von etw dat zeugen geh, etw zeigen
    to bear false \witness ( old) falsches Zeugnis ablegen veraltend form
    4. REL (of belief) Bekenntnis nt
    to bear \witness to sth von etw dat Zeugnis ablegen
    thou shalt not bear false \witness du sollst nicht falsch Zeugnis reden
    II. vt
    ▪ to \witness sth etw beobachten, Zeuge/Zeugin einer S. gen sein
    ▪ to \witness sb doing sth sehen, wie jd etw tut; (watch attentively) beobachten, wie jd etw tut
    ▪ to \witness sth etw miterleben
    the past few years have \witnessed momentous changes throughout Eastern Europe die vergangenen Jahre sahen tiefgreifende Veränderungen in ganz Osteuropa
    ▪ to \witness sth etw bestätigen
    to \witness sb's signature jds Unterschrift beglaubigen
    to \witness a will ein Testament als Zeuge/Zeugin unterschreiben
    now this deed \witnesseth LAW im Folgenden bezeugt dieser Vertrag
    ▪ as \witnessed by sth (demonstrated) wie etw zeigt [o beweist]
    as \witnessed by the number of tickets sold... wie man anhand der verkauften Karten sehen kann,...
    5. (behold)
    the situation is still unstable — \witness the recent outbreak of violence in the capital die Lage ist noch immer instabil, wie der jüngste Ausbruch von Gewalt in der Hauptstadt gezeigt hat
    forecasters can get it disastrously wrong — \witness the famous British hurricane of 1987 Meteorologen können sich fürchterlich irren — man denke nur an den berühmten britischen Hurrikan von 1987
    III. vi LAW ( form)
    ▪ to \witness to sth etw bestätigen [o bezeugen]
    to \witness to the authenticity of sth die Echtheit einer S. gen bestätigen
    * * *
    ['wItnɪs]
    1. n
    1) (= person JUR fig) Zeuge m, Zeugin f

    or defense (US) — Zeuge m/Zeugin f der Verteidigung

    witness for the prosecution — Zeuge m/Zeugin f der Anklage

    as God is my witness — Gott sei or ist mein Zeuge

    to call sb as a witness — jdn als Zeugen/Zeugin vorladen

    I was then witness to a scene... — ich wurde Zeuge einer Szene...

    2) (= evidence) Zeugnis nt

    to bear witness to sth (lit, fig) — Zeugnis über etw (acc) ablegen; (actions, events also) von etw zeugen

    2. vt
    1) (= see) accident Zeuge/Zeugin sein bei or (+gen); scenes (mit)erleben, mit ansehen; changes erleben
    2) (= testify) bezeugen

    to call sb to witness that... — jdn zum Zeugen dafür rufen, dass...

    3) (= consider as evidence) denken an (+acc), zum Beispiel nehmen

    witness the case of X — denken Sie nur an den Fall X, nehmen Sie nur den Fall X zum Beispiel

    4) (= attest by signature) signature, will bestätigen
    3. vi
    (= testify) bestätigen, bezeugen
    * * *
    witness [ˈwıtnıs]
    A s
    1. Zeuge m, Zeugin f ( beide auch JUR und fig):
    a witness of the accident ein Unfallzeuge;
    be a witness of sth Zeuge von etwas sein;
    call sb to witness jemanden als Zeugen anrufen;
    a living witness to ein lebender Zeuge (gen);
    witness for the prosecution (Br a. for the Crown) JUR Belastungszeuge;
    witness for the defence (US defense) JUR Entlastungszeuge; → god 2, prosecute A 5
    2. Zeugnis n, Bestätigung f, Beweis m ( alle:
    of, to gen oder für):
    in witness whereof JUR urkundlich oder zum Zeugnis dessen; → bear1 A 16
    3. Witness REL Zeuge m oder Zeugin f Jehovas
    B v/t
    1. bezeugen, bestätigen, beweisen:
    witness Shakespeare siehe Shakespeare;
    witness my hand and seal JUR urkundlich dessen meine Unterschrift und mein Siegel;
    this agreement witnesseth JUR dieser Vertrag beinhaltet
    2. Zeuge sein von, zugegen sein bei, (mit)erleben (auch fig):
    did anybody witness the accident? hat jemand den Unfall gesehen?;
    this year has witnessed many changes dieses Jahr hat schon viele Veränderungen gesehen oder gebracht
    3. fig zeugen von, Zeuge sein von (oder gen), Zeugnis ablegen von
    4. JUR
    a) jemandes Unterschrift beglaubigen, ein Dokument als Zeuge unterschreiben
    b) ein Dokument unterschriftlich beglaubigen
    5. denken an (akk):
    witness the fact that … denken Sie nur daran, dass …
    C v/i JUR aussagen ( against gegen; for, to für):
    witness to sth fig etwas bezeugen
    * * *
    1. noun
    1) Zeuge, der/Zeugin, die (of, to Gen.)
    3) no pl. (evidence) Zeugnis, das (geh.)

    bear witness to or of something — [Person:] etwas bezeugen; (fig.) von etwas zeugen

    2. transitive verb

    witness something — Zeuge/Zeugin einer Sache (Gen.) sein

    2) (attest genuineness of) bestätigen [Unterschrift, Echtheit eines Dokuments]
    * * *
    v.
    bezeugen v. n.
    Zeuge -n f.

    English-german dictionary > witness

  • 18 prove

    pru:v
    1) (to show to be true or correct: This fact proves his guilt; He was proved guilty; Can you prove your theory?) bevise, bekrefte
    2) (to turn out, or be found, to be: His suspicions proved (to be) correct; This tool proved very useful.) vise seg å være
    •
    bevise
    --------
    forsøke
    --------
    godtgjøre
    --------
    prøve
    verb ( proved - proved eller proven) \/pruːv\/
    1) bevise, gi bevis på, godtgjøre
    2) vise
    3) ( jus) stadfeste, bekrefte, påvise
    4) ( spesielt teknikk) prøve, teste
    5) ( matematikk) etterprøve, gjøre prøve på
    6) ( gammeldags) prøve
    7) ( matlaging) få til å ese, få til å gjære, få til å heve
    the exception proves the rule unntaket bekrefter regelen
    prove (to be) vise seg å være
    prove a weapon skyte inn et våpen
    prove a will ( jus) oppnå godkjenning av et testament
    prove guilty ( jus) finne skyldig, kjenne skyldig
    prove oneself vise hva man er god for
    prove to know about something vise seg å kjenne til noe
    prove true vise seg å være sant

    English-Norwegian dictionary > prove

  • 19 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 20 before

    bi'fo:
    1. preposition
    1) (earlier than: before the war; He'll come before very long.) antes (de)
    2) (in front of: She was before me in the queue.) delante (de), antes (de/que)
    3) (rather than: Honour before wealth.) antes que

    2. adverb
    (earlier: I've seen you before.) antes

    3. conjunction
    (earlier than the time when: Before I go, I must phone my parents.) antes (de que)
    before1 adv
    1. anterior
    2. antes
    has this ever happened before? ¿es la primera vez que pasa esto?
    3. ya
    before2 conj antes de que / antes de
    before3 prep
    1. antes de
    the day before yesterday anteayer / antes de ayer
    2. delante de
    tr[bɪ'fɔːSMALLr/SMALL]
    1 (earlier) antes de
    3 (rather than) antes que
    4 (ahead) por delante
    5 (first) primero
    1 (earlier than) antes de + inf, antes de que + subj
    2 (rather than) antes de + inf
    1 (earlier) antes
    2 (previous) anterior
    4 (position) delante, por delante
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    as never before como nunca
    Before Christ antes de Cristo
    before God ante Dios
    before long dentro de poco
    long before mucho antes de
    not long before poco antes de
    pride comes before a fall un exceso de orgullo conduce a la caída
    to put the cart before the horse empezar la casa por el tejado
    the one before el anterior, la anterior
    before [bɪ'for] adv
    1) : antes
    before and after: antes y después
    2) : anterior
    the month before: el mes anterior
    before conj
    : antes que
    he would die before surrendering: moriría antes que rendirse
    before prep
    1) : antes de
    before eating: antes de comer
    2) : delante de, ante
    I stood before the house: estaba parada delante de la casa
    before the judge: ante el juez
    adv.
    • antes adv.
    • delante adv.
    conj.
    • antes de que conj.
    prep.
    • ante prep.
    • antes de prep.
    • delante de prep.

    I bɪ'fɔːr, bɪ'fɔː(r)
    1) ( preceding in time) antes de
    2)
    a) ( in front of) delante de, ante (frml)
    b) (in rank, priority)

    II
    a) ( earlier than) antes de que (+ subj), antes de (+ inf)
    b) ( rather than) antes que

    she would die before... — prefería morir antes que...


    III
    adverb ( preceding) antes

    the day/year before — el día/año anterior

    have you been to Canada before? — ¿ya has estado en el Canadá?

    not that page, the one before — esa página no, la anterior

    [bɪ'fɔː(r)] When before is an element in a phrasal verb, eg come before, go before, look up the verb.
    1. PREP
    1) (in time, order, rank) antes de

    before long — (in future) antes de poco; (in past) poco después

    before going, would you... — antes de marcharte, quieres...

    income before tax — renta f bruta or antes de impuestos

    profits before tax — beneficios mpl preimpositivos

    2) (in place) delante de; (=in the presence of) ante, delante de, en presencia de
    3) (=facing)

    the question before us — (in meeting) el asunto que tenemos que discutir

    the problem before us is... — el problema que se nos plantea es...

    4) (=rather than)

    death before dishonour! — ¡antes la muerte que el deshonor!

    2. ADV
    1) (time) antes

    before, it used to be different — antes, todo era distinto

    2) (place, order) delante, adelante
    3.
    CONJ (time) antes de que; (rather than) antes que
    BEFORE
    Time
    Adverb ► When bef ore is an {adverb}, you can usually translate it using antes:
    Why didn't you say so before? ¿Por qué no lo has dicho antes?
    I had spoken to her before Había hablado con ella antes ► But the bef ore in never before and ever before is often not translated:
    I've never been to Spain before Nunca he estado en España
    I had never been to a police station before Nunca había estado (antes) en una comisaría
    It's not true that the working class is earning more money than ever before No es cierto que la clase obrera gane más dinero que nunca ► The day/night/ week {etc} before should usually be translated using el día/la noche/ la semana {etc} anterior:
    The night before, he had gone to a rock concert La noche anterior había ido a un concierto de rock ► In more formal contexts, where bef ore could be substituted by previously, anteriormente is another option:
    As I said before... Como he dicho antes or anteriormente... ► When bef ore is equivalent to already, translate using ya ( antes) or, in questions about whether someone has done what they are doing now before, using ¿es la primera vez que...?:
    "How about watching this film?" - "Actually, I've seen it before" -¿Vemos esa película? -Es que ya la he visto
    I had been to Glasgow a couple of times before Ya había estado (antes) en Glasgow un par de veces
    Have you been to Spain before? ¿Has estado ya en España? or ¿Es la primera vez que vienes a España? ► Translate ((period of time)) + bef ore using hacía + ((period of time)):
    They had married nearly 40 years before Se habían casado hacía casi 40 años NOTE: H acía i s invariable in this sense.
    Preposition ► When bef ore is a {preposition}, you can usually translate it using antes de:
    Please ring before seven Por favor, llama antes de las siete
    Shall we go for a walk before dinner? ¿Nos vamos a dar un paseo antes de cenar? ► But use ant es que with names of people and personal pronouns when they stand in for a verb:
    If you get there before me or before I do, wait for me in the bar Si llegas antes que yo, espérame en el bar ► Translate bef ore + ((-ing)) using antes de + ((infinitive)):
    He said goodbye to the children before leaving Se despidió de los niños antes de irse
    Conjunction ► When bef ore is a {conjunction}, you can usually translate it using antes de que + ((subjunctive)):
    I'll ask Peter about it before he goes away on holiday Se lo preguntaré a Peter antes de que se vaya de vacaciones
    We reached home before the storm broke Llegamos a casa antes de que empezara la tormenta ► If the subject of both clauses is the same, ant es de + ((infinitive)) is usually used rather than antes de que:
    Give me a ring before you leave the office Llámame antes de salir de la oficina This construction is also sometimes used in colloquial Spanish when the subjects are different:
    Before you arrived she was very depressed Antes de llegar tú, estaba muy deprimida For further uses and examples, see main entry
    * * *

    I [bɪ'fɔːr, bɪ'fɔː(r)]
    1) ( preceding in time) antes de
    2)
    a) ( in front of) delante de, ante (frml)
    b) (in rank, priority)

    II
    a) ( earlier than) antes de que (+ subj), antes de (+ inf)
    b) ( rather than) antes que

    she would die before... — prefería morir antes que...


    III
    adverb ( preceding) antes

    the day/year before — el día/año anterior

    have you been to Canada before? — ¿ya has estado en el Canadá?

    not that page, the one before — esa página no, la anterior

    English-spanish dictionary > before

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